The Sanskrit term mudra derives from the verb mud, meaning 'to please (the gods)', and the word generally refers to a seal, mark, or sign.  In Buddhist terminology the word is mainly used to refer to the hand configurations or gestures that Buddhas and deities make.  In early Mahayanan iconography only a few main mudras were depicted upon sculpted Buddha images, these became the distinguishing gestures of the Five Buddhas in later Vajrayana iconography.  The enlightenment or teaching mudra was assigned to Vairocana, the earth-touching mudra to Akshobya, the boon-granting mudra to Ratnasambhava, the meditation mudra to Amitabha, and the protection mudra to Amoghasiddhi.

    With the prolific development of iconic imagery in later Vajrayana Buddhism a larger number of mudras began to be incorporated into the continually increasing pantheon of deities.  A list of thirty-six major hand gestures is sometimes given, comprising of twelve single-handed or 'uncombined' (Sanskrit: asamyukta) gestures, and twenty-four two-handed or 'combined' (Sanskrit: samyukta) gestures.  In the Newar Buddhist tradition of the Kathmandu valley 'eight great mudras' (Sanskrit: asta-mahamudra) are generally listed and/or used.  These are the dharmachakra, abhaya, and vajra-mudra, and the mudras of the deities Vajradhatu, Vajrasattva, Amitabha, Vairocana and Vajradhara.  The Japanese Buddhist tradition also commonly lists eight principal mudras.  In the Hindu tantric and yoga traditions a list of 108 different mudras are given, of which 54 are commonly used.  In the Indian Buddhist Vajrayana traditions a list of twelve principal deity mudras are commonly found, although the number of hand gestures performed in the rituals of actively worshipping these deities is far greater.

    Not all hand gestures are classified as mudras.  Some, such as the raised 'threatening forefinger', or 'snapping the fingers in the mode of dance', simply refer to a particular finger configuration.  The Sanskrit term hasta, meaning 'hand', may also be used to describe a gesture, particularly when the hand holds an object or ritual attribute.

    In Vajrayana iconography each of the five fingers of the right hand is identified with one of the Five Buddhas and elements, and each of the five fingers of the left hand is identified with one of the Five Mothers.  A mandala of the Five Buddhas can be naturally formed when the four fingertips are grouped together around the tip of the thumb.  The thumb is identified as the white syllable Om of Vairocana (water), the forefinger as the blue syllable Hum of Akshobya (space), the second finger as the yellow syllable Tram of Ratnasambhava (earth), the third finger as the red syllable Hrih of Amitabha (fire), and the little finger as the green syllable A of Amoghasiddhi (air).

    In Kalachakra's iconography, which differs from other tantric systems in its placement and colours of the Five Buddhas and elements, a specific colour sequence is applied to each digit of the hand.  The back of each thumb is coloured in the yellow of the earth element, the forefinger in the white of water, the second finger in the red of fire, the third finger in the black of air and the little finger in the green of space.  The three phalanges or finger-joints on the inside of each of Kalachakra's fingers are coloured black, red, and white from the palms outwards, symbolizing  the mind (black), speech (red), and body (white) of the deity.  The fifteen phalanges on each of Kalachakra's twenty-four hands produce a total of 360 finger-joints, corresponding to the 360 days of a lunar year.  The fifteen phalanges represent the number of days in a lunar fortnight and the twenty-four hands represent the number of lunar fortnights in a lunar year.

    The Hindu and Buddhist traditions often classify the twenty digits of the hand and feet as the four thumbs and sixteen fingers.  Various symbolic meanings are applied to this numerical division, such as the four immeasurables, the sixteen emptiness, or the sixteen digits or lunar days between a new and full moon.  A diamond shape may also be drawn on the palm, representing the four major lines of life, heart, head, and fate in perfect symmetry.  On Buddha forms the auspicious insignia of an eight- or thousand-spoke wheel may be drawn within this diamond.

    In Buddhist tantra, the right hand represents the male aspect of method or skilful means, and the left hand represents the female aspect of wisdom or emptiness.  Paired ritual attributes, such as the vajra and bell, or the arrow and bow, which are held in the right and left hands respectively, symbolize the union of the male aspect of skilful means with the contemplative female aspect of wisdom.  When the right and left hands form a combined mudra, the left hand is usually held within, such as in the humkara mudra.  Or it may face inwards, such as in the dharmachakra mudra.  Here the inner left hand represents the integration of the teachings within oneself (wisdom), whilst the outer right hand represents the ability to communicate these teachings to others (skilful means).  In representations of the Buddha image, the right hand often makes an active gesture of skilful means, such as the earth-touching, protection, fearlessness, boon-granting, or teaching mudra.  The left hand generally remains in the passive gesture of meditative equipoise, resting in the lap and symbolizing wisdom or meditation upon emptiness.

The Boon-Granting Gesture (Sanskrit: Varada Mudra)
The boon-granting gesture or gesture of generosity is made with the palm held outwards and downwards, with all of the fingers loosely outstretched or curved slightly inwards.  It represents ‘open-handed’ generosity as charity or the granting of wishes, and is usually made with the right ‘method’ hand.  This mudra is very common amongst peaceful deities, particularly those performing the auspicious activities of pacifying and enriching.  Seated figures most frequently display the boon-granting gesture with their open palm representing the bestowing of the wish-granting gem of the Dharma.   Wealth bestowing deities may hold an attribute of enrichment, such as a jewel or a fruit, within their cupped right palm.  Several deities perform the activities of ‘raining jewels or nectar’, by circling their right hand and miraculously creating jewels or nectar from the open palm.  Eleven-faced Avalokiteshvara holds the third of his four right hands in a boon-granting gesture known as ‘eliminating hunger and thirst’, where a stream of nectar pours from his open palm to alleviate the cravings of the hungry ghosts or pretas.

Deities such as White Tara, Sitatapatra and Thousand-Armed Avalokiteshvara are depicted with a ‘wisdom-eye’ in the palm of each of their hands.  These eyes symbolize their ceaseless compassionate awareness and combine with their five fingers to represent the union of their method and wisdom as the six perfections.  Here the five ‘method’ perfections of generosity, morality, patience, energy and concentration (represented by the five fingers) are supported by, or depend upon, the sixth perfection of wisdom (represented by the eye in the center of the palm).

The Protection Gesture (Sanskrit: Abhaya Mudra)
The gesture of protection or fearlessness is also associated with the gesture of giving refuge, described below.  The right ‘method’ hand usually makes this gesture, with the palm held outwards and the fingers extending upwards.  In appearance it is similar to the boon-granting gesture, except that the hand points upwards instead of downwards and it is usually raised to the level of the heart.  The abhaya mudra represents the Buddha’s protection from all the fears of cyclic existence, and is the specific gesture of Amoghassiddhi, the green Buddha of the north.  In early Buddhist art the gesture of protection is commonly shown on statues of the Buddha, where it represents his sovereignty and protective blessings.  In early Christian art this gesture is similarly made by Christ and is known as the magna magnus or ‘great hand’.

The Gesture of Giving Refuge (Sanskrit: Sharanagamana Mudra)
The gesture of protection is more commonly know in Tibetan art as the gesture of giving refuge, and this mudra may be made with either the right or left hand.  It occurs as the common mudra of the eight manifestations of Tara or Avalokiteshvara who protect from the ‘eight great fears’.  This gesture may be made with the palm facing upwards and outwards or with the palm held downwards in the act of subjugating the object of fear.  The gesture of giving refuge may also be made with either the index, second, or third fingertip touching the thumb to form a circle, with the other three fingers extended upwards.  The circle symbolizes the taking of refuge as the union of method and wisdom, and the three extended fingers represent the Three Jewels of the Buddha, dharma, and sangha as the objects of refuge.  The various forms of Tara perform this mudra with their left ‘wisdom’ hand, whilst holding the stem of an immaculate lotus within the circle formed from the contact of their thumb and fingertip.

The Earth Touching Gesture (Sanskrit: Bhumisparsha)
The gesture of ‘earth-touching’ is perhaps more commonly know as the ‘earth witness’ or ‘earth-touch’ gesture.  This gesture is performed by extending the right hand downwards to touch the ground with its fingertips.  It symbolizes the precise moment when the awakening Buddha, Shakyamuni, vanquished the army of Mara beneath the bodhi-tree and summoned the goddess of the earth Sthavara, to bear witness to his countless acts of sacrifice.  Shakyamuni Buddha is commonly represented upon his enlightenment throne with his right hand touching the earth, and his left hand resting upon his lap in the gesture of meditation.  This symbolizes the union of hi method or skillful means in overcoming Mara (right hand), through the perfect wisdom of his deep meditation upon emptiness (left hand).  The earth touching gesture is also the mudra of Akshobya, the ‘Unshakable’ blue Buddha of the center or eastern direction.

Wheel of Dharma Gesture (Sanskrit: Dharmachakra Mudra)
The wheel of dharma gesture, or gesture of explaining the dharma, is sometimes referred to as the ‘teaching gesture’.  The dharmachakra mudra derives from Shakyamuni Buddha’s first discourse upon the Four Noble Truths, which he taught at the deer park in Sarnath, near Varanasi.  The historical event is known as the Buddha’s ‘first turning of the wheel of dharma’; where he set in motion the ‘perfect wheel’ of his teachings.  His two great subsequent discourses, the second and third turnings of the wheel of dharma, were given at Rajagriha and Shravasti respectively.  The curators of Sarnath Museum now demonstrate, with the aid of a loosely knotted handkerchief, how this hand configuration may be used to untie the ‘knot of appearances’ with a simple rotation of the hands.  The dharmachakra mudra may also be referred to as the dharmachakra-pravatana-mudra, the gesture of ‘turning the wheel of the dharma’.  This has a direct association with the ‘wheel turning’ universal monarch or chakravartin.

The dharmachakra mudra is a combined hand gesture formed with both hands positioned in front of the heart, with the right hand facing palm outwards and the left hand facing palm inwards.  The tips of the index fingers and thumbs of both hands usually touch each other slightly to form a circle, representing the wheel formed from the union of skillful means and wisdom.  The three extended fingers, which curve inwards slightly to follow the circular curvature of the index finger, represent the various Buddhist trinities.  More specifically the three extended fingers of the right hand represent that three yanas or vehicles of the early Buddhist teachings: (1) the yana of the shravaka or ‘hearers’; (2) the yana of the pratyek-abuddhas or ‘solitary realizers’; (3) the Mahayana or ‘great vehicle’.  The three extended fingers of the left hand represent the ‘three scopes’ or capacities, small, medium, and large, of practitioners following these three paths.  The right ‘method’ palm facing outwards represent the transmission of the Buddha’s teaching to others, and the left ‘wisdom’ palm facing inwards represents the inner realization of these teachings within oneself.  The positioning of the left ‘wisdom’ hand in front of the right ‘method’ hand symbolizes that skillful means arises from wisdom, or that the five method perfections depend upon the sixth perfection of the wisdom that directly realizes emptiness.  The dharmachakra mudra is the gesture of Vairocana, the ‘Radiantly Bright’ white Buddha of the center or east.  Many Buddha forms, such as Shakyamuni, Dipankara, Maitreya, and Manjugosha (Orange Manjushri), display this mudra of teaching from the heart.

The teaching may also be made with only the right hand held before the heart in dharmachakra mudra, whilst the left hand rest upon the lap in the dhyana mudra of meditation upon emptiness.  In this instance the right hand may be describes as being held in the ‘gesture of reasoning’ (Sanskrit: vitarka mudra), or the ‘gesture of explanation’ (Sanskrit: vyakhya mudra).  On early images of the Buddha his left hand may be shown holding up a corner of his pleated monastic robe, symbolizing the inner teaching or wisdom of renunciation.

The Enlightenment Gesture (Sanskrit: Bodhyangi Mudra)
The mudra of ‘principal enlightenment’ is a distinguishing gesture of Vairocana Buddha, particularly in his form as Mahavaircana, the ‘Great Resplendent One’, as the white Lord of many of the early yogatantra mandalas.  The enlightenment gesture is a combined hand mudra formed with both hands positioned in front of the heart, with the raised forefinger of the clenched or ‘vajra-fist’ left hand encircled by the closed ‘vajra-fist’ of the right hand.  An alternative form of Vairocana’s bodhyangi mudra is made by enclosing the raised thumb of the left fist in the four clenched fingers of the right fist.  Here the thumb symbolizes Vairocana at the center of the mandala, and the four embracing fingers of the right hand represent the four directional Buddhas that surround him.  If the positions of the hands in bodhyangi mudra are reversed, the raised right index finger symbolizes the penetration of the make vajra into the female ‘lotus-fist’ of the left hand.

The Meditation Gesture (Sanskrit: Dhyana Mudra)
The gesture of meditation, or concentration (Sanskrit: samadhi mudra), is performed by resting either the left hand or both hands in the lap, with the palms facing upward and the fingers extended.  When only the left ‘wisdom’ hand makes this mudra, the right ‘method’ hand may be represented in any mudra, or may hold the specific attribute of the deity.  Many Buddha forms make this gesture with their left hand as a symbol of the stability of their meditative equipoise.  They often also hold an alms-bowl upon this upturned left palm as a symbol of their renunciation.  When both hands rest upon the lap, the right hand always rests upon the left hand.  This symbolizes that the perfections of method (right hand) are supported by the perfection of wisdom (left hand).  The tips of both thumbs usually touch when both hands united in dhyana mudra.  This represents to of the main psychic channels of white and red bodhichitta, which terminate in the thumbs, and which carry the united energies of method and wisdom respectively.  The dhyana mudra is the specific gesture of the Primordial or Adi-Buddha of the Nyingma transmissions, Samantabhadra, and also of the red Buddha of the west, Amitabha, the Buddha of ‘Infinite Light’.

The Palms-Folded Gesture (Sanskrit: Anjali, Kritanjali Mudra)
The placing together of the palms at the level of the heart or forehead in the traditional Indian gesture of salutation, respect, and adoration is known as the namaskara mudra.  This gesture of veneration is probably the oldest of all Indian mudras.  In Buddhist iconography this mudra is described as ‘palms-folded’ or pressed together, and is the principal gesture of several of the forms of Avalokiteshvara and his attendants.  In his four-, eight-, and thousand-armed forms Avalokisteshvara is commonly depicted with a wish-granting gem between his slightly cupped palms.  This jewel symbolizes his possession and granting of the jewel of the Buddhadharma, although his wish-granting gem is not usually mentioned as an attribute in descriptions of Avalokiteshvara.

As a gesture of supplication or adoration this mudra is commonly made by the various devas and nagas who attend upon and make offerings to the deities.  It is also employed in the ritual practice of prostration, where the cupped palms are placed before the forehead, throat, and heart to represent the purity of body, speech and mind.  The term anjali literally means “two handfuls’, and is derived from the cupped hands being pressed edge to edge, as if they were holding a double-handful of grain or water.

The Humkara Mudra or Gesture of Victory over the Three Worlds (Sanskrit: Humkara Mudra)
Humkara, the ‘Syllable Hum”, is a name given to a wrathful form of the deity Sambara, who is also known as Trailokyavijaya, meaning ‘Victorious over the Three Worlds’.  The humkara-mudra is a combined hand gesture formed by crossing the forearms over the heart, with the right ‘method’ forearm placed in front of the left ‘wisdom’ forearm.  The two hands are closed into loose ‘vajra-fists’, with the second hand and third fingers forming circles with the thumbs, and the first and fourth fingers gracefully extended into the hand posture commonly known as the vajra-mudra.  The deity usually holds the method and wisdom attributes of a vajra and bell in his crossed right and left hands, and this principal gesture is often identified as the vajrahumkara-mudra.  Many of the semi-wrathful yidam deities, particularly those that emanate from blue Akshobya Buddha, such as Chakrasamvara, Guhya-samaja, Kalachakra, and Vajrahumkara, are represented with their two principal arms crossed in Vajradhara’s gesture of the vajrahumkara-mudra.  Vajradhara, as the Lord of all the Buddha Families, is regarded as the primordial dharmakaya form in which Shakyamuni Buddha manifests in order to reveal the Tantras.

The gesture of ‘Victory over the Three Worlds’ (Sanskrit: trailokyavijaya mudra) is identified with the humkara-mudra made by the deity Vajrahumkara, who holds both hands triumphantly crossed above his head with the palms facing outwards.

The Spirit Subduing Gesture (Sanskrit: Bhutadamara Mudra)
The spirit-subduing gesture is a specific mudra of the wrathful four-armed form of Vajrapani, known as Bhuta-damara or ‘Spirit-subduer’.  It is formed by crossing the right forearm in front of the level of the heart, and linking the little fingers in the shape of a subjugating chain.  Both of the palms face outwards, with the second and third fingers curved inwards and the index fingers extended.  The second and third fingers may be held downwards by the thumbs to form circles, with the extended index fingers pointing outwards on either side in the threatening forefinger or tarjani gesture.  The shape of this mudra resembles the two out-spread wings of the garuda and is said to terrify and subdue all malignant spirits.  Several of the wrathful forms of Vajrapani have a strong affinity with the garudas, and frequently emanate them as subjugating messengers from various parts of their bodies.

The Threatening Forefinger Gesture (Sanskrit: Tarjani Mudra)
The raised or threatening forefinger is not actually classified as a mudra, as it is performed by the forefinger alone.  As a gesture of wrath or threat the index finger is raised from the clenched or loosely held fist like a hook, or a pointing finger.  Many wrathful deities perform this gesture, particularly when they hold the subjugating attribute of a noose or a hook in their hands, or release a blazing ball of wisdom-fire.  The raised index finger symbolizes the wrathful nature of Akshobya’s syllable Hum, which threatens all demonic enemies.  The raised finger may also be known as the gesture of the ‘hook’ (Sanskrit: ankusha).  Its threatening power is perhaps most vividly expressed in the iconography of Black Hayagriva.  This deity is described as wielding a blazing iron hook in his left hand, with a black iron scorpion poised to sting upon the tip of his raised index finger.  The combination of the raised and curved index finger, the hook, and the scorpion’s tail reveal the wrathful malice replicated within this forceful gesture.

The Mandala Gesture (Sanskrit: Mandala Mudra)
The mandala mudra is performed to represent the offering of the entire physical universe to the enlightened Buddhas and teachers.  Although this gesture is not actually made by the deities, it is extensively employed during the ritual visualization practice known as the ‘mandala offering’.  In this rather complex mudra the third fingers of both hands are placed back-to-back and point upwards, whilst the second and forefingers are crossed or entwined horizontally across the palms.  The thumbs are then extended across the palms to press upon the tips of the fourth fingers, and the index fingers are curved backwards to press upon the tips of the second fingers.  The two upward extended third fingers represent Mt. Meru, the crossed second and fourth fingers represent the great salt ocean surrounding Mt. Meru.  During the ritual of the mandala offering the practitioner’s rosary is often coiled within the palms and around the raised ring fingers to represent the seven ranges of golden mountains and lakes that surround Mt. Meru.